Notes on:
Bentham, J. (1983) [1806] Chrestomathia
(the collected works of Jeremy Bentham).
J. Smith and W. Burston (eds).
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Dave Harris
Editorial introduction
This volume concerns the project to form a
chrestomathic school, that is one 'conducive to
learning'. The intention was to raise funds
by public subscription. Teaching was to be
based on the monitorial methods of Bell and
Lancaster [the editors note that Bell was soon
associated with the Church of England and the
National Society, which led to an artificial
rivalry between Bell and Lancaster.
Lancaster might have been a nonconformist].
Monitorialism was seen as an economical and
effective solution to provide mass primary
education [for the poor]. Bentham detailed
the methods to be used including: moving from
concrete to abstract topics (from 'senses' to the
'mind', for example doing natural history and then
logic); basing the curriculum on happiness, so
that 'useful' subjects like the sciences were
preferred to the classics and the old vague
material, requiring in turn restructuring of
academic subjects; the use of visual devices such
as tables and diagrams; an individualist emphasis
so that pupils would be ranked according to the
results of the tests, remain occupied at all
times, and their education would be based on their
desire to succeed. These are the same
principles and architecture as in Panopticon
[a model prison, or rather penitentiary].
Bentham's own contributions were supportive and
supplemented by various supporting appendices,
such as:
Appendix II 'Successful applications of the new
system of language learning in the High School
of Edinburgh, as reported by Professor
Pillans'(enclosed in a letter to Mr. Fox, 1814).
The School operates with large classes (200 in
Pillans' class), with wide variations of
attainment. There is a clear need to gain
the attention of pupils and to avoid tedium and
indiscipline, requiring an emphasis on
motives. Lessons including those on parsing
and translation of Latin verses which were
'prescribed' the previous day—that is they
were 'the last word mentioned, but no
assistance was given' (132). Classes were
divided into 20 divisions, each with a
Monitor. The Monitor can call on each boy to
translate a section. The names of failures
were recorded. Boys could also record any
mistakes by the Monitors, for example when giving
a pre-provided grammar lesson. Each division
then re-forms into the overall class, and
'appeals' can be heard—against the judgments of or
any mistakes made by the Monitor. If an
appeal is successful, the appellant advances one
place, and the Monitor loses one. 'This
system binds both Monitor and pupil to careful
preparation at home: the former from a fear of
detection and exposure by a boy far below him in
the class; the latter both by the infallible
certainties of his being called upon to say [a
lesson] and reported if he fails; and by the
honorable desire of rising in the class, and
proving that he knows the lesson better than the
Monitor' (132). The approach also leads to a focus
on the more difficult passages, and is thus
educationally valid. Sometimes the Monitors
are asked to construe rather than the pupils, and
this is kept secret 'until I give out from the
pulpit the order of business' (132). The
boys are also called at random to perform, often
from the list of failures notified earlier.
Questions are put in to link with other aspects of
the curriculum and 'to insinuate moral and
religious instruction' (133). Written
exercises are provided twice a week, and the marks
for them can also effect class placings.
Monitors can rank pupils on the spot, subject to
appeal.
Instruction in Greek is rather basic, but the
pupils can and do read extra material.
Monitors are tested for 'mastery'. They are
asked to listen to the boys and then released
early 'as a reward'. In Geography, the
master draws an outline map of each
(Mediterranean) country and then adds more and
more detail with each lesson—relief, then the
rivers, their length and breadth, towns and so
on. Any 'striking facts' which help the
pupils to learn are added. Then the pupils
are tested by being asked to recall details from
their own map. The best ones are displayed
and the creators are made into Monitors.
Teaching other boys also helps 'rivet' information
in their memory.
Appendix III, from Mr. Gray, also of Edinburgh
High School, 1813.
The Lancaster method is preferred to the old
methods, where 100 pupils occupy the class, and
each was simply required to repeat a bit of a
lesson in turn. This was very long- winded,
and those waiting do not listen. The good
boys do not benefit, and many fail. The
Lancaster scheme helps to avoid failure.
Failure leads to evil, such as dislike of the
teacher and the subject, indolence, and 'habits
dangerous to virtue', which produce struggles
later in life (137). Under the Lancaster
scheme, boys were employed every minute, either
speaking or listening. The division of
classes under monitors saves repetition.
Pupils study because 'ignorance is more shameful
where the account is to be rendered to one of his
own year than to a man' (137). Boys made
better instructors than teachers, because they
were closer to their fellows. Monitors were
assiduous because they were afraid to lose their
position, and their work was checked by the Master
any way. No one has failed. The method
offers at least the basics, attainable by all, and
at least introductions to ['proper']
education were possible—'the shield of the young
mind against the ruinous inroads of vice'
(138). Everyone seemed to be happy.
Corporal punishment had been abolished as brutal
and ineffective. Instead the goal was 'to
animate the school with one spirit' (139) [I have
commented that this involves a double control over
the pupil, self motivation as well as the
influences of the actual contents which are
supposed to socialize. Foucault's commentary on
Panopticon is also of obvious relevance].
Appendix IV Bentham 'Essay on Nomenclature and
Classification'
This involves attempts to classify different
academic subjects and make them 'useful' and thus
suitable as part of the curriculum of the
chrestomathic school. The nomenclature of
academic subject needs clarification to make it
accessible. Academic 'denominations' have
two purposes: the first one is an ordinary
purpose, presenting to view the contents of a
branch of knowledge, but the second one is
systematic, to reveal the relations between
different branches of knowledge. For the
ordinary purpose, denominations need 'a conception
as clear, correct and complete as by and in the
compass of a single denomination can be
afforded'. Ideally, they would be
represented as a single word which would avoid
ambiguity (142). For the systematic purpose,
a single word might not be suitable or
possible. Here, a denomination 'should
[remove] doubts about whether it is included in
any other branches of knowledge'. Therefore
it needs to depict both the identity and diversity
of properties (143). [A note says it should
indicate the relations of agreement and
disagreement with the other branches and
'relations of connection and dependence: viz those
which [involve] an acquaintance, more or less
intimate, with this or that other branch of art
and science' (144).
The argument then goes on to attack the names of
particular subjects which are misleading,
especially 'Natural Philosophy' to refer to
science, which only raises an ambiguity whether
chemistry is or is not natural. [Bentham
long had objections to the notion of natural law
theories to explain jurisprudence]. A new
terminology is required to produce clarity which
in turn would break down the barriers between
teachers and learners: 'the only line of
separation... is that which has been drawn
by the hand of Time' (149). 'Nature' is only a
'well-known fictitious personage' (150).
The essay goes on to criticize the French
Encyclopedists for developing inconsistent
clarifications.
Section XI 'The Mode of Division should, as far
as may be, exhaustive—why?'
Bentham argues that the parts of the subject must
'exhaust the contents of the whole…[so]...the
information contained in a work which is composed
of them can be complete' [I have noticed this and
several earlier similarities between Bentham's
work and later principles of 'closure' in computer
based models of learning, especially that of
Pask]. If this does not happen, 'instead of
that of a regular tree, the form in which it
presents itself will be no other than that of the
confused peak of unconnected fragments,—each of
them, in respect of form and quantity, boundless
and indeterminate' (280). [no support for
Deleuzian rhizomes here!] Such reframing helps us
exercise 'dominion over almost every branch of
science' (219), and permits the activities of
'legislators' who 'act sometimes in furtherance of
the interest of the professors… [but with
any luck] more frequently and more
necessarily in furtherance of the interests of the
whole community' (219)
Section XVIII 'How to Plant A Ramean
Encyclopaedical Tree on any given part of the
field of art and science'
First list all the keywords and their relations in
columns. Then find out which words and
relations are the most the 'extensive', 'whether
[an individual terms] exactly covers the
whole extent of [your] proposed field'. If
so 'employ it for your universal trunk'
(255). Then go on to sort out two main
branches, both of which are found in the
trunk. If this is not possible, or if there
are more than two, seize the most important ones
as the most positive branch and 'negate' the
others. Proceed to do the same with minor
branches. Choose single word synonyms where
possible. Isolate the distinctive properties
of each term. Separate out the real and
fictitious entities [the latter include abstract
concepts—these need a whole new system logical
theory of language (259), that is new
classifications]
more education studies
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