Notes on:
Sewart, D et al (eds) (1983) Distance
Education - International Perspectives.
Beckenham: Croom Helm.
Dave Harris
[Classic accounts of the pedagogic principles,
formulated as educational technology, that
informed distance education. These
principles then escaped and infected the whole
sector of higher education in the UK, through
various quangos such as HEFCE, QAA and others,
without realizing the context—that such techniques
might just be acceptable if it's not possible to
talk to students face to face. There is just
something about educational technology of this
kind that appeals to managers and bureaucrats—it
is their ideology]
Baath, J. 'A list of ideas for the
construction of distance education courses',
272-90.
There are some very basic requirements for any
distance project, including a budget, decisions
about the type of course, the sort of teaching and
teaching groups that might be required and so on
[A manager speaks! There are also
wonderfully stereotyped assumptions about adult
students]. We can borrow the notion of
essential psychological functions from
Gagné. An educator must arouse attention and
motivate through the presentation of objectives,
make the links with previous knowledge, activate
learning, provide feedback, promote transfer and
retention. Apparently these functions are to
be achieved through pretty basic bits of advice
like using colour, dynamic layout, attractive
typography, and even providing 'smells' and
'presents'. We should consider using in our
materials 'the same style as advertising
brochures', providing surprises and variety.
We should appeal to student needs, require them to
do concrete presentations, and enjoyable
exercises. We should provide them with rapid
feedback. This leads to the need for
objectives, self tests, diagrams of structures and
arguments and so on. We might begin with a
diagnostic test to link present experience with
course content, including 'familiar material from
the mass media'. These students will need study
techniques.
The teaching material must be designed to exhibit
clarity, linguistic simplicity, the personal style
of the educator, and concrete examples. We
need to think of developing 'lexivision' [that
fuses pictures and words] and using variable
media. The job is to explain 'without
putting too much strain on the truth' in the form
of offering a commentary with a range of different
emphases (285). We should also use Ausubel's
'advance organizers', in the form of statements of
overriding principles, or announcements of
similarities and contrasts in the material.
We can develop exercises to organize verbal
explanations and summaries. We should engage
in active learning through the use of exercises,
tests, references to further material, and
positive criticism. We can promote the
transfer of knowledge through a variety of
examples, parallels in other subjects,
dissimilarities as well, and the application of
exercises. Study techniques should be
primarily aimed at helping retention.
Peters, O. 'Distance Teaching and Industrial
Production: a comparative interpretation in
outline', 95-113 [a very influential piece,
originally published in 1967. Control implications
are especially clear]
Distance education clearly shows novel features,
and thus it requires modern forms of
communication. In this way, distance
education is 'complementary to our industrial
age'. Industrialization transforms even
teaching [I don't think this is meant critically],
and we can use concepts of industrial production
as heuristics. This will provide the latest
in a series of analogies, replacing earlier ones
between, say, education and dramaturgy.
Weber was clearly aware of the parallels.
We can see distance education as akin to
industrial production because:
- There is a production
system producing [printed or broadcast] study
materials
- Commercial considerations
are explicit, even for state financed
organizations, and these lie behind certain
structural changes such as seeing education as
produced by an advanced division of labour
rather than a craft; seeing how the work tasks
involved are structured by mechanization; the
need to develop a systematic control of the
system especially in preparatory phases;
formalization and standardization of work; and
objectification of the production process
because investment is required. These
trends produce a strong tendency towards
centralization and concentration. We
need terms from 'business studies' to
understand them.
We might consider the changes in terms of
rationalization, an effective relationship between
means and ends. This can produce a new
specification of tasks and an interest in
continual improvements. There will be
resistance, from obstacles 'in human nature…
[Irrational residues]' (98). However,
educational practice has long been rationalized
any way, seen in the deployment of rational
curriculum planning in lecture methods, for
example. These trends are developed best in
distance education. Advanced division of
labour in such systems can overcome any subjective
resistance (99) [diluting radicals in committees
and hierarchies of control]. Greater
specialization also means a more limited phase of
work [maybe even short term specific
contracts]. Larger audiences are possible,
and so are modern techniques including the mass
media. The system can now be subjected to
new forms of quality control and scientific
monitoring.
The notion of a division of labour was first
developed by Adam Smith, who noticed that
increased specialization was more
productive. Such specialization is advanced
in teaching a distance, splitting for example
counselling from teaching and from
assessing. Specialist academics are
accompanied by specialist editors and
pedagogues. It might even be possible to
develop a [kind of monitorialism] system where
senior students do the marking (101).
An increased level of mechanization is now
possible, possibly even leading to
automation. Conventional teaching can be
seen as analogous to pre-industrial crafts.
Assembly lines have proved to be an important
technology, and such devices will save time with
teaching as well. The same goes with the
notion of mass production—we must no longer see
mass as a negative term (102): now it merely means
a system of large scale production and access
[note that Peters uses German references
throughout, apparently from German business
studies]. Addressing the mass market brings
all sorts of advantages and permits the
development of special systems to cater for it.
There is no need for academics and students to
live in close proximity. Effective marketing
drives research into student needs in order to
prevent dropout and to accurately fill
places. Such research can also help to
standardise chances for entry as well.
A good deal of preparatory work is still essential
in mass production. For example we need to
calculate the numbers and sizes of inputs.
'The more thorough the preparation, the less a
successful production process dependent upon the
particular abilities of the workers involved'
(103) [I have noted that these are quite
unapologetic deskilling approaches]. Lots of
investment is needed in this preparatory
work. In distance education, 'tutors and
advisers are more easily exchangeable on account
of the thorough preparatory work' (104).
More planning is required, at both a general and
specific level, to deal with contingencies.
Problems arise especially with the need for a
'structural integration' of the different
components—for example, there might be a need to
specify definite roles for each component.
Overall, a rational organization is required to
deliver effective teaching. Designing one
can be another specialist function, involving the
scientific control and management of production
processes [and Taylor is specifically mentioned
here, 106]. Applied educational
research is especially important in distance
education. There is a need to focus on the
effectiveness of the whole group especially,
rather than on individuals. We can therefore
expect considerable formalization—standardization,
specification, or effective communication,
standard guidelines for course production and
assessment. The product needs also to be
standardised. Diversity can be introduced
through combinations chosen by consumers.
Standardised products will limit 'situation -
dependent improvisation'. It might be
possible to work towards one suitable course for
as many students as possible, and this will end
the risk of encountering idiosyncratic academics
(107).
A distance education university offers a
functional differentiation of tasks and workers,
and this will lead to greater specialization
[which, for him, is good]. It will produce a
necessary objectivation to remove subjective
elements and increase production, as in
Taylorism. The personal authority of
academics will be diminished [also good]
(109). Effective courses can be reproduced
[because academics will no longer own them].
Concentration and centralization can help, just as
does the growth of monopoly capital [!]. For
example, distance teaching can be particularly
cost effective if it deals with large
numbers. Such concentration will help the
concentration of quality as well, although there
may be a price to pay in minimising competition
[about the only criticism so far].
Overall,
distance teaching can be defined as a
rationalized activity, with all the advantages
of reproduction, access and concentration.
There is no intention 'to pass judgment' (111),
however, and it is important to recognize
important disadvantages and the possibility of
'painful malfunctions'[in another chapter, this
work is quoted and the possibility of alienation
is raised—alienation among the workforce,
especially academics who have not prepared to
work in such an industrialized way. The
remedy might be some kind of job enrichment
scheme!].
more education
studies
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